Vol. 12 · pages 46–50

25COMMERCIAL RELATIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST at a time when more serious events such as the intrigues of Agrippina and Messalina’s violent death too much occupied the minds of the Roman historian to make an adequate mention of it. The embassy was sent by Chundra Muka Siwa King of Celyon who ruled from 44 to 52 A. D. 1 Other embassies soon followed. The second came to Trojan in A. D. 107, third to Antonius Pius A. D. 138, fourth to Julian A. D. 361 and the fifth to Justinian A. D. 530. The natives of Indian make no mention of these embassies. They are recorded by Roman historian and barely so, consequently it is very difficult to infer regarding the object of these embassies. They however serve to demonstrate that intercourse between India and Rome was constant and alive and that “during the reign of Servius, his son Commodus, and the pseudo antonines”, when Alexandria and Palmyra were both occupied with commerce and were both prosperous. Roman intercourse with India was at its height. Then Roman literature gave more of its attention to Indian matters and did not, as of old, confine itself to quotation from the historians of Alexander or the narratives of the Seleucidian Ambassadors, but drew its information from other and independent sources. 2 Other evidences mostly of a literary character strengthen the same conclusion. Dr. Hirth in his “China and the Roman Orient” quotes Sung-Shu, a Chinese historian 500 A.D. writing about the period 420-478 A. D. saying; “As regards Ta-ts’in (Syria) and I’ien Chu (India) far out on the western ocean, we have to say that, although the envoys of the two Han dynasties have experienced the special difficulties of this road. Yet traffic in merchandise has been effected, and the goods have been sent out to the foreign tribes, the force of winds, driving them far away across the waves of the sea. There are lofty ranges of mountains quite different from those we know and a great variety of populous tribes having different names and bearing uncommon designations, they being of a class quite different from our 1 cf.J.R.A.S. 1860 Vol. XVIII, p. 349-50. 2 cf J.R.A.S. Vol. XIX, p. 276.

26 DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR : WRITINGS AND SPEECHES own. All the precious things of land and water come from them, as well as the gems made of rhinoceros horns and chrysoprase, serpent pearls and asbestos cloth, there being innumerable varieties of these curiosities : and also the doctrine of the abstraction of mind in devotion to the Lord of the world (Buddha)—all this having caused navigation and trade to be extended to these parts.” Another Chinese historian Ma-Touanlin in his Researches into antiquity says “India (A. D. 500-16) carries on a considerable commerce by sea with Ta-Tsin, the Roman empire and the Ansi or ASE”. 1 A writer of considerable acumen makes bold to say after the destruction of Palmyra, direct trade between India and Rome never existed. The Romans, he says, established their trading station at Adule, the chief port of Ethiopia and “though under Constantine there was much economic prosperity, yet the Roman trading activity never extended beyond Adule”. Archaeological discoveries and historical references however point to quite the opposite conclusion. Mr. Vincent Smith remarks; “There is good reason to believe that considerable colonies of Roman subjects engaged in trade were settled in southern India during the first two centuries of our era, and that European soldiers, described as powerful Yavanas, and dumb Mlecchas (barbarians) clad in complete armour, acted as bodyguards to Tamil kings, while the large ships of the Yavanas lay off Muziris (Cranganore) to receive the cargoes of pepper paid for by Roman gold”. 2 Not only were there Roman trading colonies but that “Roman soldiers were enlisted in the service of the Pandyas and other Tamil kings”.3 And “during the reign of the Pandya AryappadaiKadaretha - Nedunj - Cheliyan, Roman soldiers were 1 Quote in the J. R. A. S. Vol. XIX, p. 307. 2 Early History of India, p. 400-1. 3 Quoted in Mookerjee’s Indian Shipping, p. 128.

27COMMERCIAL RELATIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST employed to guard the jobs of the fort of Madura”.1 Numismatic evidences also bear out the intimate commercial relations between India and Rome. (Half page of the M.S. is left blank—ed.) This intimate commercial intercourse between Rome and India is very readily accounted for by the fact that “from the time of Mark Antony to the time of Justinian i.e. from B. C. 30 to A. D. 550, their political importance as allies against the Parthians and Sassanians, and their commercial importance as controllers of one of the main trade routes between the east and the west, made the friendship of the Kusans or Sakas, who held the Indus Valley and Bactria, a matter of highest importance to Rome” 2 With this short sketch of the trade relations of India with foreign countries we will now consider the articles of commerce and trade routes and the important ports of India. The Periplus, Ptolemy’s Geography and the Christain Topography are the chief sources that furnish with information on the articles of commerce and the ports of India. The Periplus mentions the following as articles of export: (1) Spikenard, (2) Cortus, (3) Bdellium, (4) Ivory, (5) Qugate, (6) Lycirem, (7) Cotton cloth of all kinds, (8) Silk cloth, (9) Mallow-cloth, (10) Yarn, (11) Long pepper, (12) Diamonds, (13) Sapphiris, (14) Tortoise shell, (15) Transperent stones of all kinds, (16) Pearls, . (17) Malabathrum,(18) Incense, (19) Indigo. Under imports it mentions: (1) Wine,(2) Copper,(3) Tin,(4) Lead, (5) Coral, (6) Thin clothing and Inferior sorts of all kinds, (7) Sweet clover, (8) Flint and crude glass, (9) Antimony, (10) Gold and Silver coins accruing from the favourable balance of trade. The Periplus or the marine guide book to the Indian ocean mentions the following trading ports of India : (1) Barygaza or the modern Baroach the principle trading centre of western India. It mentions two inland towns connected with Baroach, Paithan and Tagara. (2) Souppara—modern Supara near Bassein. (3) Kalliean—the present Kalyan. (4) Semulla—presumably modern Chembur. 1 Quoted Ibid, p. 128. * Quoted in Mukerjee—“ Indian Shpping”, p. 139.

28 DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR : WRITINGS AND SPEECHES (5) Mandagora. (6) Palaipatami. (7) Melizeigara. (8) Tyndis. (9) Muziris. (10) Nelkynda. “Ptolemy’s Geography” describes the whole sea coast from the mouths of the Indus to those of the Ganges, and mentions many towns and ports of commercial importance. These are, among others, Syrastra (Surat), Monoglosson (Mangrol) in Guzerat, Ariake (Maharashtra), Soupara, Muziris, Bakarei, Maisoli (Maslipatnam), Kounagara (Konarak), and other places”. 1 Certain of the Tamil poets have beautifully described some of the commercial ports and towns in southern India. One of them says, “The thriving town of Muchiri, where the beautiful large ships of the Yavans, bringing gold, come splashing the white foam on the waters of the Periplus which belongs to the Cherala, and return laden with pepper.” “Fish is bartered for paddy, which is brought in baskets to the houses,” says another. “Sacks of pepper are brought from the houses to the market: the gold received from ships, in exchange for articles sold, is brought to shore in barges at Muchiri, where the music of the Surging sea never ceases, and where Kudduvan (the Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and mountains.”2 The description given of Kaviripaddinam (the Kamara of the Periplus and Khaberis of Ptolemy) or Pukar are equally important and inspiring. It was built on the northern bank of the Kaveri river; then a broad and deep stream in which heavily laden ships entered from the sea without slacking sail. The town was divided into two parts, one of which, MaruvarPakkam, adjoined the sea coast. Near the beach in MaruvarPakkam were raised platforms and godowns and warehouses where the foods landed from ships were stored. Here the goods were stamped with the Tiger stamps (the emblem of the Chola kings) after payment of customs duty, and passed on to merchants’ warehouses. Close by were the settlements of the 1 R. K. Mookerjce “Indian Shipping”, p. 134. 2 Quoted in Ibid, p. 135.

29COMMERCIAL RELATIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST Yavana (foreign) merchants, where many articles were always exposed for sale. Here were also the headquarters of the foreign traders who had come from beyond the seas and who spoke various tongues. Vendors of fragrant pastes and powders, of flowers and incense, tailors who worked on silk, wool, or cotton, traders in sandal, aghil, coral, pearl, gold, and precious stones, grain merchants, washermen, dealers in fish baits, butchers, blacksmiths, braziers, carpenters, copper smiths, painters, sculptors, goldsmiths cobblers, and toy-makers all had their habitation in Maravar-Pakkam.” 1 The trade routes from India to the west may be conveniently divided under two heads. (1) The land routes and (2) The marine route. It is truely said that individual migration is a habit of civilized man. Ancient folks, because of their strong gregarious instinct or because of the want of security, always moved in bands. This habit of theirs is well depicted in their methods of trade. Compelled to be peddlars, fear of competition was never too strong to break the tradings. Caravan which moved from place to place with their loaded animals under conditions so unfavourable that easygoing modern man with all the keen business instinct in him will rather quit worshipping the mamon rather than undergo the difficulties ill-compensated by gain. Speaking of the Caravan Mr. Harbur says, “The very course of the Caravan was not a matter of free choice, but of established custom. In the vast steppes of sandy deserts, which they had to traverse, nature had sparing allotted to the traveller a few scattered places of rest, where, under the shade of palm trees, and beside the cool fountains at their feet, the merchant and the beast of burden might enjoy the refreshment rendered necessary by so much suffering. Such places of repose became centreparts of commerce, and not unfrequently the sites of temples and sancturies, under the protection of which the marchants prosecuted his trade, and to which the pilgrim resorted.” 2 Being subject to these conditions the Caravan route was never a straight one, it was always zigzag and when we look 1 Mookerjee R. K. “ Indian Shipping”, p. 135-136. 2 Quoted in the Calcutta Review , Vol. 19, p. 345 .